Criminology

The United Kingdom

England and Scotland

England and Northern Ireland

England and Wales

Robert Mawby

Frank Leishman

Robert Reiner

Sir Robert Mark

By clear and convincing evidence

Beyond all doubt

By a majority of the evidence

Beyond reasonable doubt

1985

1989

1991

1996

The same as the adult maximum

2 years

14 years

Life imprisonment

Twice as much

Five times as much

Ten times as much

Hundred times as much

The total number of beds which are available in the prison

The number of spaces the prison was originally intended to have

The number of spaces available in a prison, excluding those not currently in use

The average number of beds a prison has in a cell usually meant for one occupant

2001

2003

2005

2009

John Howard in 1755, meaning that prisons were unhygienic and should be avoided as a route for punishment

Lord Gladstone, in1898, meaning that even the separate and silent system could not change prisoners’ behaviour

Robert Martinson, in 1974, meaning that research showed that nothing could change offenders’ behaviour

Michael Howard, in 1993, meaning that prisons were the best place for all offenders

Victims may be unaware of an offence

Victims may be reluctant to report a crime

Police do not record all crimes

All of the above