Research Methodology

    Structured observation
    What is meant by the term “reactive effect”?
    Bryman asks “Do people change their behaviour because they know they are being observed?” (p276) If, or when, they do, we call this a “reactive effect”. The problem then becomes one of research participants behaving other than they would in normal circumstances, rendering the data invalid. Webb et al (1966, cited on page 277) argued for greater use of unobtrusive measures of observation to minimise the reactive effect. Others (like McCall, 1984, cited on page 276) suggest the effect diminishes over time as participants grow used to the presence of the observer.
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 276,277
    Author: rikazzz Comment
    Focus groups
    When might it be useful to conduct a relatively large number of focus groups?
    Although it is not the principal aim of the qualitative researcher to obtain a representative sample, they should nevertheless be aware of any “stratifying criteria” that might influence the results, such as the participants’ age, gender and social class. Recruiting a larger sample and conducting more focus groups can be a good way of managing this, especially when there are plenty of people willing to participate. We might also remember, at this point, the concept of ‘theoretical saturation’ (see chapter 18). Diminishing returns set in after a relatively small number of focus group meetings.
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 503-505
    Author: rikazzz Comment
    Ethnography and participant observation
    What is a key informant?
    An ethnographic study will be greatly enhanced by a key informant, who develops an appreciation of the research and directs the ethnographer to situations, events or people that are relevant to the research questions. They can also advise the covert ethnographer on how to play his or her role and thus “pass” as a group member. This does smack of undercover agents being briefed by fifth columnists but it can apply just as easily to overt ethnography, since sponsors and gatekeepers can also act as ‘informants’. In this sense, they are actually guiding the research.
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 432
    Author: rikazzz Comment
    The nature of qualitative research
    Respondent validation is the process by which:
    Key concept 17.3 on page 385 gives a full answer to this question. Qualitative researchers are often keen to ascertain that there is a good correspondence between their interpretation of the findings and their participants’ experiences. Respondent validation is a way of ensuring this, by presenting the research participants with a report of the interview conducted with them, for example, and asking them for feedback on it. There are certain problems associated with respondent validation but the idea to keep in mind is that this process is an attempt to provide validity for the research from the very people who supplied the data.
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 385
    Author: rikazzz Comment
    Using existing data
    Studying the official crime rate may provide unreliable data because:
    Official statistics have been regarded with suspicion by critics who point to the social processes involved in constructing these measures. The figures that end up in the official statistics may represent only the final stage of a long process of decision-making by various social actors. Bryman shows a diagram of the crime-statistics recording process in Figure 14.1, on page 320, itemizing seven intermediate steps between the criminal offence and its official recording. Something may happen, or not happen, at any one of these steps, which may lead to the non-recording of the crime. The ‘official crime rate’ reflects crime recorded rather than crime committed.
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 320,321
    Author: rikazzz Comment
    Focus groups
    What is the role of the moderator in a focus group?
    The moderator or facilitator of a focus group generally takes a non-directive role in the proceedings, asking general questions that will provoke a discussion and making sure that everyone has a chance to speak. They will attempt to keep the conversation focused on the topic in question and guide “rambling” participants back to the “track”. It is true that low structure is necessary to facilitate group discussion initiatives and digressions are inevitable. However, it is also true that the moderator must provide some structure so that the research questions may be addressed within a reasonable time frame.
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 506-508
    Author: rikazzz Comment
    Content analysis
    If coders differed in their interpretations of the categories in the schedule, this could negatively affect the data’s:
    As with any other “method”, there are disadvantages. The base documents may be deficient because they are not representative, because older documents might have been lost or destroyed, for example, or they may have been distorted. Analysis of web pages could suffer severely from this effect. Furthermore, it must be said that with the best will in the world, “it is almost impossible to devise coding manuals that do not entail some interpretation on the part of coders” (Bryman, p305). Critics of this method have pointed out that even when applying ‘objective’ schedules of codes, researchers draw upon their everyday, common sense knowledge to interpret the meaning of categories. This inconsistency can pose a threat to the inter-coder reliability of the data.
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 305,306
    Author: rikazzz Comment
    Structured observation
    Which of the following is not a type of sampling used in structured observation?
    Martin & Bateson (2007, cited on page 274) identify four main types of sampling that apply to structured observation. It is important to bear in mind that the behaviour itself is the focus of study, rather than the person exhibiting the behaviour, so samples are drawn up according to occurrences in time. “Ad libitum sampling”, records all behaviours observed in a particular time period whereas, “focal sampling” concentrates on one individual only, in a set time period. “Scan sampling” observes behaviours within a group at set intervals. Finally, “behaviour sampling”, somewhat confusingly, occurs by the researcher observing which individuals engage in which sort of behaviours. We can observe behaviour but there seems no way we can observe impulses to behaviour, like emotions.
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 274
    Author: rikazzz Comment
    Research designs
    Lincoln & Guba (1985) propose that an alternative criterion for evaluating qualitative research would be:
    Most tests of reliability and validity are applicable to quantitative data rather than to qualitative. Lincoln and Guba (1985) propose “trustworthiness” as an example of a criterion that could determine how good the qualitative research might have been. This criterion may be subdivided into dimensions of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability (which Bryman examines in detail in chapter 16), to act as counterparts for reliability and validity in quantitative research. It is the view of many that whereas running a focus group, for example, may be ‘messier’ than conducting a survey, messiness should not be a goal of the research!
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 44
    Author: rikazzz Comment
    Language in qualitative research
    In a CA transcript, what does the symbol “(.)” stand for?
    A variety of notational symbols are used in CA to represent particular sounds or manners of speaking. The symbol “(.)” indicates a very slight pause, whereas “(0.8)” would suggest a longer pause of 0.8 seconds. Emphasis is shown by an underline and an intake of breath by “.hh”. These symbols are an integral part of the transcript, since it is the talk itself that is in focus and talk consists of pauses between words as well as the actual words used.
    Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 528, Tips and skills
    Author: rikazzz Comment