Ethnography and participant observation

It can be difficult to be accepted into a “closed” social setting, and the ethnographer has to work hard to earn the trust of such group members. It is best to negotiate access gradually, through sponsors, gatekeepers and other contacts, rather than simply appearing on the scene and expecting to be accepted. Since the strategy is ‘open’, clearly answer (c) is inappropriate, in that it is more likely to destroy trust than to build it.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 427-428

Visual ethnography can be based on extant materials, which already exist (such as people’s private collections of photographs or newspaper clippings) or research-driven materials, which are either created by the researcher or at the researcher’s request (such as photographs taken for the purpose of later analysis). Since it is possible to ask respondents to discuss photographs in one-to-one interviews, this method is clearly not restricted to ethnography. However, since the method is appropriate to many kinds of ethnographic studies, the expression ‘visual ethnography’ has been popularized.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 451-459

Key concept 19.3 on page 439 discusses the risks faced by ethnographers, not just in participant-observer roles, as they become more and more familiar with, and sympathetic to, the people they are observing. The danger is that the researcher can forget the original purpose of the research and the data gathered becomes increasingly difficult to manage and analyse. It does not happen automatically, nor is it predicated on a particular ethnographer role.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 439

Ethnography refers to a research design that is based on participant observation and is also used as a label for the final research report. However, in social studies research, the ethnographer becomes a part of the group studied. In this sense, we say that ethnography is a research design that involves immersing oneself in a particular social group or culture for an extended period of time and observing, listening to and recording what goes on. The ethnographer may also initiate conversations and conduct interviews with group members.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 423, Key concept 19.1

Various reports on ethnographic research on football hooliganism and shady business practices, for example, are discussed by Bryman (pages 438-440), which show the risk and performance of criminal activity in order to maintain a covert role as an active participant. This does not justify breaking the law! A fervent ethical stance must be assumed by social researchers at all times, sometimes leaving no option but to avoid certain types of research project, including those focussed on criminal activities. It is never acceptable, under any circumstances, to break the law.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 440

An ethnographic study will be greatly enhanced by a key informant, who develops an appreciation of the research and directs the ethnographer to situations, events or people that are relevant to the research questions. They can also advise the covert ethnographer on how to play his or her role and thus “pass” as a group member. This does smack of undercover agents being briefed by fifth columnists but it can apply just as easily to overt ethnography, since sponsors and gatekeepers can also act as ‘informants’. In this sense, they are actually guiding the research.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 432

Carrying out an ethnographic study under cover creates a number of practical and ethical problems, including the difficulty of recording one’s observations without arousing suspicion. On the other hand, it does mean that the group members are not aware of being studied and so will behave fairly “naturalistically”. Although it is quite difficult, often, to gain access to a particular group, the attempt to do so is overt (open) rather than covert (secret). Many researchers try to avoid the covert role on ethical grounds because it does not provide participants with the opportunity to consent to the research.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 427, Key concept 19.2

We have already seen how covert research faces the difficulty of recording data on the spot. Actually, all ethnography has to deal with this kind of problem, particularly as the emphasis is more towards participation. It is probably impossible to record data fully (as in a structured interview, for example) at the moment of the data presentation. Consequently, ethnographers try to scribble something down immediately to capture the essence of an event, in the form of key words, phrases or quotations that will jog the memory later. These are “scratch notes” and are designed to aid the production of “full field notes”, made later that day, which should be as detailed as possible.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 440,441

Stacey (1988) is in disagreement with Reinharz (1992) and Skeggs (2001), who had suggested that feminist ethnography is an empowering way of documenting women’s lives. Stacey argues that like any other fieldworker, the feminist ethnographer is in a position of inauthenticity and dissimilitude in relation to their participants, and that they will ultimately betray these women by imposing an academic interpretation on their lives. The debate centres around the role of the researcher and the lives of the women participants, highlighting the reporting role of the researcher based on their interpretation of events and relationships. This can seem to place the researcher “higher” than the women studied.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 446-447

These terms come from Gold’s (1958, cited on page 433) classification of participant observation roles. These range from ‘complete participant’ (a covert role) to ‘complete observer’ (an overt but unobtrusive role). The ‘observer-as-participant’ role has the main emphasis on observation but is more intrusive into the activities of the group. Finally, the ‘participant-as-observer’ is fully involved in the group’s activities, but because they adopt an overt role, the other members are aware that they are being studied.
Reference: Bryman: Social Research Methods: 5th Edition Page(s) 433-438