Sociology

The intellectual forces of the nineteenth century included rationalism, humanitarianism, and empiricism, each contributing to the development of new ideas in science, philosophy, and social theory.

French Catholic counterrevolutionary philosophy was a strong reaction against the Enlightenment, particularly its emphasis on reason, secularism, and anti-clericalism, often supported by the Catholic Church during the French Revolution.

Durkheim used the term social solidarity to describe the strength of social ties and the degree to which individuals are integrated into and connected to their society.