Sociology

Lemert distinguished between primary deviation, the initial rule-breaking acts which may be normalized, and secondary deviation, the consequences of the social reactions to primary deviation. This involves the labelling of an individual or group as deviant, stigmatization, and punishment, for example through law enforcement agencies, and the exclusion, incarceration or coercion of the rule-breaker(s). Those labelled as deviant may find that this affects their future encounters with others, and may come to see themselves in terms of the label. 238

In contemporary society, there is much greater tolerance of ethnic difference and an appreciation of multiculturalism, but this does not mean that racism has disappeared. Martin Barker argues that a ‘new racism’ has emerged since the 1970s, which is much subtler and based on xenophobia. It invokes images of Britain as a cohesive, homogeneous society and pride is taken in the ‘British character’ as a cultural identity. However, with this comes a fear of ‘outsiders’ who are seen as a threat to ‘our’ way of life, which suggests racial prejudice. 224-225